Treasury of Persian Language and Literature

Romanticism is a literary movement that emerged in Europe after Classicism. This style developed as writers shifted their focus from the aristocracy, prevalent in Classicist literature, to the lower social classes, introducing emotional depth into literary works. While Romanticism is primarily associated with novel writing, its elements are also evident in poetry. These elements include lyricism, individual and collective emotions, love for individuals and society, nostalgia, and melancholy—features that have historically existed in Persian poetry. This study examines and compares Romanticism's components in the poetry of Hamidi Shirazi and Mehrdad Avesta. The findings reveal that Hamidi Shirazi extensively employs Romantic themes in his poetry, which leans toward past ideals and imaginary lovers characteristic of the Iraqi style. His work reflects minimal social concerns. Conversely, Mehrdad Avesta demonstrates a stronger collective inclination. While his early poems are dominated by individual Romantic themes such as descriptions of nature, lovers, sorrow, and grief, his later works—especially post-revolution—shift away from Romanticism toward revolutionary elements and spiritual love, strengthening his social Romanticism. Both poets address themes like love, sorrow, nostalgia, despair, material and cultural poverty in their works.

Metaphor has been studied from various perspectives including literary, linguistic, aesthetic, and psychological, and has been the subject of extensive research over centuries. In this regard, the Conceptual Metaphor Theory is one of the frameworks offering a novel perspective on metaphor, developed by Fauconnier and Turner (1998–2002) in the form of different mental spaces, including two input spaces, a generic space, and a blended space. The aim of this study is to analyze conceptual metaphors in Layla and Majnun in the domains of “actions” and “objects” based on the Conceptual Blending Theory proposed by Fauconnier and Turner (1998–2002). In this study, the mental spaces of each metaphor are examined to identify which conceptual domains are utilized in the construction of mental spaces in each metaphor. Subsequently, the meaningfulness or lack thereof of these conceptual domains is analyzed using SPSS. The results indicate that the domains used in the metaphors of Layla and Majnun can be categorized into two groups: “actions” and “objects.” In constructing the metaphors, these conceptual domains are placed within an input space and, together with another input space representing the poet’s intention, are projected into a blended space that gives rise to the metaphor. As the findings of this study reveal, all metaphors in Layla and Majnun can be analyzed based on the conceptual domains that contribute to the formation of mental spaces within the framework of the Conceptual Blending Theory.

One of the main issues in the evolution of the language and thought of Islamic mysticism is the intuitive and existential perspective of Islamic mystics, which has been widely considered in the works of mystics and Sufis. From the perspective of Sufis, the unity of intuition is the perception of divine monotheism and its proof. In this view, divine monotheism is proven only through the discovery and intuition of the seeker. Followers of the unity of intuition consider the essence of the Almighty to be free from any likeness or resemblance. On the other hand, followers of the unity of existence consider nothing real or genuine except existence, which has objectivity with the divine essence. Ohad al-Din Maragheh is a mystic of the late seventh and early eighth centuries. He has addressed the characteristics of man in his poem Jam Jam. The purpose of the present study is to examine the intuitive perspective of Ohad al-Maragheh in accordance with the existential perspective of Sheikh Mahmoud Shabestari in the poem Gulshan Raz and Asiri Lahiji in the poem Asrar al-Shuhad, which is conducted in a descriptive-analytical manner. Owadi Maraghe emphasizes the "unity of intuition" in which the seeker, through discovery and intuition, reaches annihilation in the one truth. In contrast, Shabestari and Asiri Lahiji have addressed the "unity of existence" in their works and believe that all beings are manifestations of a single truth, namely God. This research shows that in the works of these mystics, there is an emphasis on the unity of truth and divine manifestations and the negation of the dualities existing in the universe.

One of the innovative approaches in the critique of literary texts, rooted in modern linguistics, is formalist criticism, which analyzes and examines literary works and the prominent features of a writer’s work while uncovering and documenting the aesthetic and artistic values of those works based on linguistic form. In other words, the primary focus of formalist critics is on the structure and form or the superficial aspects of a literary work. Formalist theorists argue that the way a poet or a writer employs language differs from how it is used by others. Kioumars Monshizadeh and Ali Babachahi are among contemporary poets who employ literary language in a distinctive manner. Both poets have effectively utilized formalism to shape and structure their poetry in a unique and aesthetically appealing way. Accordingly, the present study, using a descriptive-analytical method and based on a formalist approach, examines and analyzes the poetry of these two poets through the lens of Geoffrey Leech’s theory of deviation. The findings of this study indicate that both poets, through various techniques, sought to enhance the literariness and prominence of their poems to attract the reader’s attention. From selecting innovative titles and employing fresh and novel expressions to using different types of deviations—including semantic, lexical, stylistic, phonetic, grammatical, and dialectal deviations—one can discern the flawless impact of formalism in their poetry.

Like the sages of ancient Iran, Suhrawardi chose poetry and allegorical narratives to convey the subtleties of intuitive Illuminative wisdom. He explicitly stated his intention to revive the thought of the sages of ancient Iran. This thinker employed a persuasive writing style and, through the creation of allegorical tales, artistically expressed his teachings in literary form, revealing reality. The present study seeks to answer this fundamental question: What is the relationship between the allegorical narratives of Illuminative wisdom and the thought of the sages of ancient Iran, and what role did these sages play in the creation of poetry and artistic works? Based on the findings of this research, Illuminative texts can be examined from two perspectives within the philosophy of poetic art. First, in terms of form and writing style, they present the fundamental elements of poetry, particularly imaginative elements. Additionally, from the perspective of content, meaning, and intrinsic elements, they share a deep-rooted connection with the essential components of Illuminative thought, namely consciousness, contemplation, and luminous knowledge. In his allegorical narratives, Suhrawardi designs a roadmap for connecting to the realm of imagination and acquiring intuitive knowledge. Through a dialectical exchange with the guiding intellect, he lays out the path for the seeker to receive the light of illumination. Thus, by exploring the imaginative realm and the allegorical elements in Suhrawardi’s narratives and conducting a comparative analysis with the archetypes in ancient esoteric Illuminative texts, a deeper understanding of Illuminative literary art can be attained.

Octavio Paz, the Mexican poet and artist, was a political and social critic as well as the creator of artistic and literary works written in the style of the Surrealist school. The thematic foundation of his poetry and literary works revolves around philosophical and mythological discussions, which he most likely accumulated as a cultural reservoir in Asia, particularly in India. This study examines and analyzes the images in Paz’s prose poems to explore their philosophical similarities and mythological motifs in relation to the philosophical views of Khayyam, the Iranian philosopher, Epicurus, the Greek philosopher, and Hermes. The aim is to uncover the aesthetic and imagistic richness of his poetry. This study, which compares and contrasts the philosophical motifs of these three philosophers with Paz’s poetry, has found that Paz’s perspective on the element of time closely aligns with the views of these philosophers. The message conveyed by Paz’s images emphasizes the significance of immediate and beneficial utilization of time with a hedonistic and sorrow-averse approach. His poetry also reflects an escape from the mundane calendrical time and an effort to attain an eternal, utopian, and paradisiacal poetic temporality. The images and imagery that make Paz’s poetry remarkable possess mythological, mystical (Hermetic), and philosophical themes. His surrealist imagery, in contrast to the classical rhetorical tradition, is abstract and reflects the poet’s immersion in the image itself. This study employs a descriptive-analytical method with an interpretive and hermeneutic approach, utilizing a comparative perspective. The research is conducted through library sources, and data collection has been carried out using note-taking techniques.

Saadi’s Gulistan is one of the classical Persian texts that has attracted the attention of adaptors and rewriters due to its profound educational and cultural content and its eloquent language. Rewriters and adaptors must select appropriate themes from the numerous stories in classical texts for their target age groups. This study, employing a descriptive-analytical method and utilizing library research tools for data collection, examines the narrative elements in the rewritten version of the story "The Recovery of a King from a Dreadful Disease"—Tale 22 in the first chapter of Gulistan—adapted for children and compares these adaptations with the original text. The findings indicate that, while the overall framework of the work has remained largely unchanged, the plot of the rewritten versions has been expanded compared to the original text. Techniques such as increased descriptions of the characters' actions and appearances, expanded dialogues, and, in some instances, the use of internal monologues have been employed to make the story more engaging. The tone of the dialogues has shifted from literary and poetic to a simpler style that aligns more closely with the characters. The authors have not introduced creative names for the characters and have instead used the generic names found in the original text. The language of the rewritten text is simple and formal; however, the presence of difficult words, long sentences, incorrect omissions, and excessive use of the conjunction "and" between sentences has at times compromised the fluency and readability of the text. Although the rewriter has achieved some success in adapting the work, it is necessary for future adaptations to more closely align with Saadi’s artistic subtleties and literary techniques.

An analysis of the relationship between the literature of Mohammadreza Sangari and Neo-Sadrian philosophy, particularly concerning the concept of freedom, reveals a deep interconnection between these two domains. Sangari, employing a poetic and emotive language, has translated complex philosophical concepts into a simple and accessible form for the general public. This approach has contributed to the removal of philosophy from the exclusivity of elites, making it a subject of public interest. Moreover, the concept of freedom in Sangari’s poetry and Neo-Sadrian philosophy is rooted in shared foundations. Both emphasize the unity of being, movement toward perfection, the role of love and knowledge in human life, and the struggle against oppression and injustice. By drawing on his personal experiences, Sangari has linked philosophical concepts to the everyday lives of people, facilitating a more practical engagement with these ideas. In summary, Sangari’s literature has played multiple roles in expanding philosophical culture. Through the democratization of philosophy, the establishment of an emotional connection with the audience, serving as a model for younger generations, promoting humanistic values, and fostering a spirit of inquiry and critical thinking, his literary works have given philosophy a more popular and accessible dimension. Consequently, it can be argued that Sangari’s literature, acting as a bridge between philosophy and literature, has significantly contributed to the elucidation and expansion of the concept of freedom in Neo-Sadrian philosophy. Overall, this analysis demonstrates that Sangari’s literature is not merely a literary work but also a powerful tool for the dissemination of philosophy and human values. A study of Sangari’s works enables a deeper understanding of philosophical concepts, including the notion of freedom.